The EU as a Security and Military Actor in Uncertain Times: Caught in the Expectations-Capabilities Gap?

Caught between the Russian threat and American retrenchment, expectations are increasingly directed toward the EU, which is expected to assume responsibility for ensuring security in Europe. However, in its current institutional form the EU would be overwhelmed by this task.Three models of European security are therefore currently under discussion: (a) a leap in EU integration, (b) the formation of a core group, and (c) functional and minilateral cooperation under the umbrella of a Europeanized NATO. All three models have advantages, but each also entails significant risks. Replacing the leadership provided by the indispensable superpower remains an unresolved challenge.